Zenon of Kition: The First Known Coherent Anarchist Philosopher

Have you ever heard about ancient anarchists? Contrary to the common belief that anarchism is a modern invention, the term “anarchist” (ἀναρχικός) and its core ideas go back even thousands of years - at least as far as the 13th century BCE. As noted by scholars like Prof. Max Nettlau, Prof. Georg Adler and the great Peter Kropotkin himself, the ancient world already produced individuals and schools of thought that explicitly rejected slavery, authority, and the state. And these early anti-authoritarians were indeed already labeled anarchists, as a recognition of their conscious opposition to domination.

Unlike the myth of chaos later associated with the term “anarchy” in classical antiquity and the Middle Ages, Zenon proposed a peaceful, egalitarian community governed not by law, force or coercion, but by reason and virtue. His ideas, though largely forgotten in mainstream philosophy, represent the first known attempt to construct a coherent anarchist worldview - one grounded in ethical and social principles that remain deeply relevant today.

The widespread view that anarchism only began as a modern political theory in the 19th century is a historically narrow and ideologically blinded narrative. Scholars like Prof. Max Nettlau, Prof. Georg Adler, and Peter Kropotkin clearly document that both the term “anarchist” and the idea of a stateless, non-hierarchical society existed even thousands of years before the modern era - with roots deep in ancient Greek language and practice.

Among these thinkers, Zenon of Kition, founder of the Stoic school in the 3rd century BCE, stands out as one of the first to articulate a coherent, ethical vision of an anarchist society. In his (now lost) work The Republic, Zenon proposed a world without state institutions, private property, or coercive law — guided instead by reason, virtue, and natural law. Far from chaos, his ideal society emphasized harmony, mutual aid, and universal justice.

Zenon’s contribution is not a historical curiosity - it represents a foundational moment in the long and global history of anarchist thought, centuries before the Enlightenment or the industrial age. Recognizing him helps us decolonize and deepen our understanding of what anarchism has always been: a timeless challenge to domination in all its forms.

Or as Kropotkin told us: "Anarchy is a natural tendency of life"

As Kropotkin so eloquently described in Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, cooperation, rather than competition, is a natural and necessary part of human and animal societies. Mutual aid creates bonds of solidarity that transcend hierarchical structures.

Anarchism is ancient and natural, rooted in human cooperation, mutual aid, and decentralized autonomy, these anti-authoritarian libertarian tendencies were present even long before all these terms were scientifically coined in antiquity - from Zenon of Kition to Kropotkin, from Elektra of Makedonia to Emma Goldman. Anarchy is a natural tendency of life.

"....and thus the theory of anarchism was developed for the first time in world history in scriptures”.....
~ Prof. Max Nettlau; in "Geschichte des Anarchismus in 10 Bänden - Band I - Vorfrühling der Anarchie"

“… damit ist zum ersten Male in der Weltgeschichte die Theorie des Anarchismus entwickelt.”
“… thus, for the first time in world history, the theory of anarchism was developed.”
— Prof. Georg Adler; in "Geschichte des antiken Sozialismus und Kommunismus von Platon bis zur Gegenwart" (1899),

Up to this point, we have only spoken of some mythological figures and some proto-anarchist philosophers in antiquity, like the Kynics, Hedonists, Skeptics, Epicureans, Eudaemonians, Taoists etc. who were sometimes named as "anarchists" by their contemporaries, however up to this point in history, those often had only some vague libertarian ideas about anti-slavery, individual liberty, resistance, freedom and equality:

E.g.: Elektra of Makedonia (1268 BC), Antigone of Thebes (1225 BC), Antiphones of Athens (c. 480 BC–411 BC), Artemisia of Karia (c. 5th century BC), Demokritos of Abdera (460 BC–370 BC), Antisthenes of Athens (c. 446 BC–365 BC), Aristippos of Kyrene (c. 435 BC–356/355 BC), Diogenes of Sinope (c. 413 BC – 323 BC), Theophrastos (371 BC–287 BC), Zhuangzi (369 BC–286 BC), Krates of Thebes (c. 365 BC–285 BC), Pyrrhon of Elis (360 BC–270 BC), Demetrios of Phaleron (350 BC–280 BC), Euklidos of Megara (4th century BC), Epikuros of Samos (341 BC–270 BC) etc. pp.

But that should now change with Zenon of Kition.

Zenon’s anarchist philosophy is the foundation of all that we now consider essential to anarchism: the repudiation of the state, the elimination of coercion, and the exaltation of human liberty based on natural principles.

“The best exponent of anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece was Zenon (342–267 or 270 BC), from Crete, the founder of the Stoic philosophy, who distinctly opposed his conception of a free community without government to the state-utopia of Platon. He repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual - remarking already that, while the necessary instinct of self-preservation leads man to egotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct - that of sociability. When men are reasonable enough to follow their natural instincts, they will unite across the frontiers and constitute the cosmos. They will have no need of law-courts or police, will have no temples and no public worship, and use no money - free gifts taking the place of the exchanges. Unfortunately, the writings of Zeno have not reached us and are only known through fragmentary quotations. However, the fact that his very wording is similar to the wording now in use, shows how deeply is laid the tendency of human nature of which he was the mouthpiece.”
~ Peter Kropotkin - Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910, Anarchism

https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/petr-kropotkin-anarchism-from-the-encyclopaedia-britannica

Contrary to the rest of Greek philosophy, aiming to blend nomos and physis in harmony, kynics dismissed nomos (and in consequence: the authorities, hierarchies, establishments and moral code of polis, while promoting a way of life, based solely on physis. Zenon of Kition, the founder of Stoicism, who was much influenced by the kynics, described his vision of an egalitarian utopian society around 300 BC. Zenon’s Republic advocates a form of anarchic society where there is no need for state structures.

Anarchism Fully Developed in Antiquity

Zenon of Kition (c. 333–261 BCE), the founder of Stoicism, stands as one of the first philosophers to articulate a fully devloped systematic theory of anarchism. His vision of a stateless, egalitarian society, where individuals lived in accordance with natural reason and without the constraints of the state, property, religion, marriage, or money, was groundbreaking for its time. His radical rejection of state authority, social hierarchy, and materialism laid the groundwork for an early vision of a stateless, egalitarian society based on natural reason (logos) and individual autonomy.

The assertion that anarchism was fully developed in antiquity is supported by numerous scholars who have recognized the roots of anarchist thought in ancient Greece and other pre-modern societies. These thinkers laid the groundwork for what would later be formalized as anarchist theory in the 19th century. The core principles - equality, freedom, and solidarity - were all present in antiquity and evolved through the works of philosophers, social theorists, and historians.

Peter Kropotkin: The Anarchistic Elements of Ancient Greek Philosophy

Kropotkin argued that mutual aid, the practice of cooperation and solidarity, is a fundamental principle of nature, visible not just in human societies but in all life forms. This principle of voluntary cooperation and collective welfare was already present in the anarchistic elements of ancient thought, particularly in the Kynics (such as Diogenes of Sinope) and Stoics like Zenon, who rejected hierarchical structures and advocated for self-sufficiency and communal living.

"Anarchism in ancient Greece found its clearest expression in Zenon’s Stoic philosophy, which rejected state authority and emphasized the sovereignty of the individual governed by natural principles."
— Peter Kropotkin (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910)

"The historian Georg Adler sees the ideas of anarchism developed for the first time in world history in the teachings of Zenon of Kition (approx. 333–261 BC). Zenon, the founder of the Stoa, was a great critic of Platon’s ideal of a society that should find a moral coexistence with absolute state power. In contrast to Platon, Zenon drafted his own ideal of a free stateless community that would better suit human nature. Instead of following the written law, people should follow their true natural urges through discernment. This would lead people to love for others and to justice. Just as there is unity, harmony and equilibrium in external nature, so would this also apply in human society. From this follows the negation of the law, the courts, the police, the school, the marriage, the money, the state religion and the state. Man would live in perfect equality across all national borders. Everyone should work voluntarily according to their abilities and be allowed to consume according to their needs."

Prof. Georg Adler: Ancient Development of Anarchist Theory

Georg Adler, a German philosopher and anarchist, emphasized that anarchist thought was fully developed in antiquity - especially in Greek philosophy. He argued that ancient thinkers such as Zenon, Diogenes, and Sokrates all engaged with anti-authoritarian ideas, advocating for a rejection of the state, property, and other forms of social domination.

Adler also pointed out that ancient philosophers, particularly the Stoics, laid the philosophical foundations for the modern anarchist critique of authority. He observed that anarchism in antiquity was not just a critique of the political state but was deeply embedded in ethical systems that promoted self-governance, moral autonomy, and universal equality.

Adler identifies Zenon of Kition, the founder of Stoicism, as the first thinker to develop a coherent theory of anarchism.

In ancient Greece, anarchism was not a mere political slogan but a fully developed social and ethical theory, grounded in the idea of universal justice and natural law. The direct German phrase highlights Zenon's contribution:

“… damit ist zum ersten Male in der Weltgeschichte die Theorie des Anarchismus entwickelt.”
“… thus, for the first time in world history, the theory of anarchism was developed.”
— Prof. Georg Adler; in "Geschichte des antiken Sozialismus und Kommunismus von Platon bis zur Gegenwart" (1899),

“Another line of thought, which had to lead even more clearly to anarchism, was given with the doctrine of the state of nature, which arose since the fifth century [BC]. Here - the return to nature was preached. Political literature paints prehistoric times as a kind of paradisiacal state of humanity, where, of course, cultural goods were still lacking, but people lived happily on in peace and harmony ... and here is the obvious conclusion: that social harmony is the consequence of the needlessness of people in a condition where no object is valued sufficiently high to be considered the aim of strong desire and struggle. ”

“The cynical school now had to pick up on trains of thought of this kind all by itself. The needless was their human ideal, because it was independent of people and things and thus only truly free: consequently her social ideal - as corresponded to an age of declining political life in Hellas - was of course a condition that had to be more or less similar to the one just described and so it really praised the self-sufficiency of the first people as the highest. At the same time the agreement of all, the homonoia, the goal of the whole ethical-political speculation of those days, was given by itself. ”

“The logical consequence of the principle of lack of need was the negation of cultural needs to the negation of all cultural institutions: marriage, property, the State. These last results are admittedly only hinted at by the Kynical school itself (at least in the fragments of kynical literature we have received) - if we disregard the abolition of the family, which Diogenes explicitly suggested; but those bold consequences are to be found in the oldest system of the Stoa, which was closely related to the kynical ethics, precisely in the system of Zenon, a contemporary of Dikaearchos. Unfortunately, the same is not preserved for us; at least we are able, from what we know about it through other authors, to reconstruct a sketch of the social ideals represented therein! Of egoism, however, nature has inoculated into us a second instinct for community with other people, and this community instinct, which is inherent in us by nature, leads quite automatically to justice and human love, in that this alone enables a lasting and happy community. If we now have the necessary insight, we must absolutely live in accordance with nature, consciously make “living in accordance with nature” according to the principles just established as the guideline for all of our actions and are not allowed to worry about things that are only artificially stamped as goods, such as property , honor and the like.”

“Like the kynics earlier, Zenon too, as a consequence of his principles, goes beyond the framework of Greek nationality and positively postulates a cosmopolitanism - which in the age of Alexander’s world empire, the barbarian and the Hellenic to a whole aspired to one that had to be twice as easy for a man of oriental tribe."
~ Prof. Georg Adler

"In this way he stood in opposition to Platon, who “could never deny the racial Hellenes”, and he was also an opponent of the platonic state socialist ideas of the same:"
~ Prof. Max Nettlau

“Zenon does not want to know anything about state omnipotence, paternalism and regulation, but he relocates the omnipotence of the law to the inside of people; as soon as these are only insightful enough to follow their true natural instincts, they will all be filled with justice and love for their fellow human beings, and unity and harmony will prevail, as in external nature, also in the natural coexistence of human beings, and so on the people will present the image of a herd grazing peacefully together, in that they represent a whole on a small scale, like the cosmos governed by a uniform law on a large scale. ”

“So all act according to the law inherent in nature itself, which has come to life in the mind. And this law commands one to love the closest, yes, everyone with whom one comes into contact .... ”

“But where everyone is given what is due to them voluntarily, yes, there is vain unity and love, there are no misconduct. And consequently the court and the police are banned here.”

“Since, furthermore, man can follow the supreme moral principle without the need for many words and instructions, the entire school sciences ... are useless and cease to be taught; - since everyone grows up naturally, the grammar schools are also abolished, - and since everyone knows who they suit, the bond of marriage is superfluous, and nature and freedom become broadest in regulating the relationship between man and woman Leeway granted; - and in the same way, where everyone has found the true relationship to God and through their way of life dedicates themselves to the best worship, no state organization of worship and no temple is necessary; - and finally ... no more money and no means of exchange are needed, since all economic traffic takes place through the immediate transfer of the desired products in good quality.”

“So here the whole of humanity is thought of in its perfection, everything that means coercion is switched off, the inner moral drive as the sole, but also completely sufficient regulator for the individual, as shown for the whole.”
~ Prof. Georg Adler

“So Zenon - summarized Georg Adler - through his brooding mind and his excessively dissolute imagination came to draw all the conclusions from the philanthropic - natural principle of the kynical school, with which this school itself had withheld from ancient Greek political instinct, and thus the theory of anarchism was developed for the first time in world history in scriptures”.....
~ Prof. Max Nettlau

Zenon’s critique of state power and his vision of a society governed by natural reason aligns with anarchist ideas of decentralized, cooperative living. His philosophy is seen as one of the earliest forms of political anarchism, focusing on individual sovereignty and the rejection of forced political authority.

Prof. Max Nettlau about Zenon and Anarchist Foundations

Max Nettlau, the famous historian of anarchism, (the Herodotos of anarchism) was one of the first to highlight the continuity of libertarian ideas from ancient times to the modern anarchist movement. Nettlau recognized Zenon of Kition as a key figure in the foundational anarchist thought of antiquity. He argued that Zenon’s rejection of state authority, property, and coercive institutions was a systematic formulation of anarchism, long before it became a coherent political theory in the 18th and 19th century.

The anarchist historian Prof. Max Nettlau sees the mere existence of the word “An-Archia” as evidence that “there were people who consciously rejected the rule, the state.”

Nettlau also emphasized that anarchist ideas in ancient societies were not just theoretical but represented living practices, especially among indigenous groups and societies that operated without centralized authorities.

"The anarchist idea was present in ancient philosophy... Zenon’s anarchism marked the first clear, systematic formulation of a stateless, egalitarian society in world history."
— Prof. Max Nettlau

"Late Greek philosophers opposed the state cult and narrow nationalism of their better-known predecessors; I mean Zenon, of whom Prof. Georg Adler wrote in 1899 ): “... In relation to the community of goods and state omnipotence for the purpose of the highest moral community life, as Platon preaches, Zenon, the founder of the Stoic School (342–270 BC), praised the free stateless community for the same purpose as the ideal of the future. “ States want to have something to do. The wise man - was his reasoning - knows no more precious good than freedom and must therefore seek to withdraw from state life, which at least partially suppresses individual freedom. Why a fatherland at all, “when every piece of earth is equidistant from Hades [the place of the dead]”? According to this, one can also understand how he could give Sokrates the answer to the question of whether he would rather belong to the ruling or ruled class in the state: “Neither of the two!” And of course we have received similar views from supporters of the school founded by Aristippos."
— Prof. Max Nettlau

"While Platon wants to achieve everything through the highest compulsion with the means of the state, Zenon leaves everything “to freedom, to the moral law, which has been incorporated into the human being, so that all state institutions cease to exist, the concept of the state itself evaporates.” In Zenon’s hierarchical structure there is “perfect equality”: “Everyone works according to his (voluntarily applied) abilities and consumes according to his needs.” He lets “all peoples live in a constant frenzy of mutual friendship and love ) .... ”
— Prof. Max Nettlau

"I cannot judge this presentation of Zenon’s ideas from my own knowledge, just as little as the presumed prehistory of his ideas and how far his time and milieu influenced them, nor to what extent they were influenced by other forerunners and movements and currents can be assumed outside of philosophical circles, in any case Zenon had full confidence in the human instinct for sociality and drew brilliant, anarchist conclusions from it. Even if his followers were unable to stay on top of his heights, his penetrating teaching of the unity, equality and freedom of all people who realize this themselves out of inner instinct streamed a power and warmth that spread over many centuries, which in the gloomy times, able to kindle some human emotions in the most rigid minds. This aftereffect can be expressed in the words of Dr. Paul Barths described ):"
— Prof. Max Nettlau

“... The stoic principles became most effective when, when applied to legal questions, they resulted in “natural principle”, an ideal right of general equality and the resulting general freedom, since by nature all human beings are equal as partakers of divine reason and therefore all are free. The Roman jurists of the imperial era were all permeated by this ideal right and tried to enforce it against the rigid positive right wherever it had a loophole or where innovations were necessary out of practice.”- In the third century stoicism emerged ousted by Christianity. “... But once resurrected in the Renaissance, stoicism contributed greatly to European culture. The worldview of the educated in the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries is the “natural religion” which, in contrast to Revelation, does not divide people into denominations, but unites them all, e. g. belief in God, immortality, retribution after death. It interweaves the entire European literature of the modern age, it appears in Thomas More ’Utopia, where it forms the worldview of the utopians, in the creed of the Savoyard vicar in Rosseau’s Emile, in Schiller’s“ Three Words of Faith ”. Its main root is stoicism, which taught that certain cognitions, including God, immortality, and virtue, constitute an innate common property of all mankind. And the stoic natural principle, which also awoke in the 16th century, was the ferment to all the ideas that transformed medieval society into modern society from the 16th to the 19th century ... ”
— Dr. Paul Barth

"All these connections deserve an in-depth study. Natural law was a permanent utopia of freedom, the admonishing conscience of positive law, which was as different from it as the church’s direct, folk-dumbing doctrines from the social utopia expressed in the equality of all before God and before death, the bad conscience of the tyrants and the rich, who in fact never achieved a permanently satisfactory theoretical and moral justification of rule and property, because even their most compliant jurists and clergymen were aware of natural law and the ideas of equality of so-called natural religion and they only did so through a thousand palpable subtleties could derive the factual state from the natural state. In its origin, natural law was certainly not speculation and fiction, but it was the result of the previous rebellious attempts and hopes of the anarchist libertarian socialist forces of mankind, to which the progressive destruction of the old, self-evident common property of all on earth by the haves and the servitude of the masses clearly conscious of their free grouping by organized dictatorial minorities, the later states."
— Prof. Max Nettlau

"To be sure, the influence of natural law was limited, and it was mostly mentioned only in theory in order to be avoided in practice, but it was one of the veins through which a living tradition and immortal hopes of freedom and equality for so many centuries flowed on, albeit weakly, and it is in modern anarchy in which these ideas finally gained fuller development. In John Toland’s Pantheisticon (Cosmopoli, 1720), the draft of a secret society for the dissemination of the ideas mentioned here in their most developed form at that time, For example, a passage from Ciceros De republica (of the state) about the natural law) was read out, whereupon it says: “We want to be governed and guided by this law and not by the lying and superstitious fictions of the people. The imagined laws are neither clear nor general, nor always the same, nor ever effective. So they are of very little use, or rather, they are of no use to anyone except those who interpret them .... “- Natural law was the cradle of international law, a first attempt to summarize what the peoples had in common against the separate power of the states. — There were also social roots in natural law, which Grotius, Pufendorf, Thomasius (1688) began to develop; this was called the “principle of sociability” and the Latin word socialitas, which is used for this purpose, involuntarily develops the word socialist.)"
— Prof. Max Nettlau

"Whether the word 'anarchy' - which means 'non-rule' and, in the usage of many countries, conveys a heightened sense of the term 'disorder' - already carried this meaning at the time it was first coined, I am inclined to doubt: language would have chosen a more direct word. The existence of the Greek word an-archia suggests that there were people who consciously rejected rule and the state (at least as early as the 13th century BC). Only when they were fought and persecuted did this term become attached to them in the sense of being the most dangerous rebels against the existing order. The revolutionary connotation arose much later, whereas the term communiste (in the sense of 'communal') as a legal term is older. Incidentally, the point at which the word communist was first used in a political sense does not appear to be firmly established."
— Prof. Max Nettlau

"The impulses originating from the Stoics were interrupted by spiritual and material catastrophes, the rise of Christianity, the arrival of new peoples, and countless other disruptions. Yet the influence of the ancient Greek and Hellenistic opponents of the state, and friends of freedom and equality, including the first internationalists, whom we personify in Zenon, was never entirely lost."
— Prof. Max Nettlau

Zenon’s Anarchist Vision: A Stateless, Egalitarian Society

Zenon’s vision of a society without laws, police, or money was a profound critique of the political and social systems of his time. His philosophy, rooted in Stoic natural order, proposed a universal ideal of freedom and equality that transcended the need for coercive institutions.

Zenon’s radical rejection of state authority, social hierarchy, and materialism marked a sharp departure from the political and ethical philosophies of his predecessors, and laid the foundations for a new conceptualization of human freedom and social order.

Zenon’s society was based on the belief that human beings, guided by reason, could live together harmoniously without the artificial structures of authority. He rejected private property, marriage, and religion as oppressive institutions that serve the interests of the few at the expense of the many. Zenon’s critique of these societal norms echoed the early ideas of the Kynics, such as Diogenes and Crates, who also rejected conventional societal expectations in favor of a return to nature (physis).

Zenon took this critique further, not only rejecting societal conventions but proposing an alternative vision: a society in which individuals could coexist freely, without domination, based on mutual respect and cooperation. This was the first systematic draft of an anarchist society, marking Zenon as a pioneer of libertarian socialism, long before the modern anarchist movement emerged in the 19th century.

Peter Kropotkin, Prof. Max Nettlau and Prof. Georg Adler recognized Zenon as the first to provide a comprehensive vision of anarchism, asserting that his philosophy was a precursor to modern anarchism, which emerged in the 18th century.

Prof. Georg Adler’s Assessment: Zenon as the First known Anarchist Theorist

"For the first time in world history, the theory of anarchism was developed" by Zenon, who offered a comprehensive vision of a stateless society rooted in universal equality and freedom. ~ Prof. Georg Adler in "Geschichte des antiken Sozialismus und Kommunismus"

"In ancient Greece, anarchism was not a mere political slogan but a fully developed social and ethical theory, grounded in the idea of universal justice and natural reason"
— Prof. Georg Adler

Georg Adler, a key figure in the rediscovery of anarchist ideas, highlighted Zenon’s role in the early development of anarchism. Adler emphasized that Zenon was the first to systematically design a social model in which all forms of domination - state, property, religion, marriage, money, justice, and education - were eliminated. Instead, Zenon envisioned a society based on natural reason (logos), where individuals could coexist freely, without the need for coercive institutions.

Zenon’s Anarchist Vision:

Zenon envisioned a society without coercive institutions - such as the state, property, marriage, and religion - where individuals would coexist freely based on reason and moral order. His critique of societal norms, especially state power and private property, echoes the early Kynics like Diogenes of Sinope, but Zenon went further by proposing a practical model for a stateless society grounded in mutual respect and cooperation.

Max Nettlau, an early anarchist historian, also recognized Zenon’s contribution to the theory of anarchism. He argued that Zenon was not just a philosopher but a precursor to modern anarchism. Zenon’s work demonstrated a fundamental rejection of the state, which later became a cornerstone of anarchist thought. Nettlau noted:

"Zenon’s ideas provided a philosophical foundation for anarchism long before it became a recognizable political movement in the 19th century." ~ Prof. Max Nettlau in Geschichte der Anarchie - Band 1

Nettlau further acknowledged the continuity of anarchist thought through history, suggesting that Zenon’s vision of a stateless, natural society was a key link in the chain of libertarian movements that persisted from ancient times to the present.

Peter Kropotkin, one of the most influential modern anarchists, recognized the profound anarchistic elements in ancient Greek philosophy. He highlighted Zenon of Kition’s Stoic teachings as being foundational to modern anarchism. Zenon’s vision of a society without the state, police, or property echoed the principles of mutual aid that Kropotkin later expanded in his own works, especially Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902).

Peter Kropotkin’s Reflection on Zenon

Also Peter Kropotkin, one of the most influential figures in modern anarchism, regarded Zenon as a key figure in the early development of anarchist theory. In his writings, Kropotkin declared that Zenon’s thought was remarkably ahead of its time, mirroring many of the principles that would later be central to Kropotkin’s own theories of mutual aid and anarchism.

Kropotkin stated:

"The best exponent of anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece was Zenon, who repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual."
— Peter Kropotkin in Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910; Anarchism

Peter Kropotkin, influenced by Zenon’s principles, emphasized how Zenon’s rejection of state power and advocacy for mutual aid resonated with his own anarchist theories, especially in "Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution."

Kropotkin emphasized Zenon’s rejection of state power and his affirmation of the moral autonomy of individuals, which closely aligned with Kropotkin’s own concept of cooperation as a natural, evolutionary force. Kropotkin’s own anarchist vision, expressed most famously in his book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902), found resonance in Zenon’s ideas about a society where individuals could self-govern in the absence of state structures, guided by moral reason.

Zenon’s Legacy and the Continuity of Anarchist Thought

Zenon’s ideas laid the philosophical groundwork for later thinkers. His vision of a stateless society, governed by natural order and reason, found echoes in the work of later anarchist philosophers, particularly Peter Kropotkin.

Zenon’s thought directly impacted later thinkers, including Kropotkin, who extended Zenon’s ideas into anarchist communism. His vision of a society without authority and hierarchy influenced modern anarchism, bridging ancient critiques of power to contemporary libertarian socialism.

The concept of mutual aid, central to Kropotkin’s theory of anarchism, resonates strongly with Zenon’s principles of voluntary cooperation and social harmony without state intervention. In this sense, Zenon’s work is not just a philosophical precursor to anarchism but also a historical bridge linking ancient critiques of power with modern anarchist thought.

Zenon’s ideas on natural law, which promoted equality, freedom, and the rejection of coercive institutions, influenced not only Roman law but also the Enlightenment thinkers who later championed natural rights and individual liberty. Zenon’s ethical-political foundation served as a critical link between early Stoic philosophy and the development of modern political thought, ultimately feeding into the ideas of libertarian socialism and anarchism in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Zenon’s philosophy represents the earliest, systematic formulation of anarchism, focusing on individual freedom, equality, and voluntary cooperation without state intervention. His ideas continue to be foundational in anarchist thought, linking ancient philosophy with the modern anarchist movement.

As noted by Max Nettlau:

"Zenon’s conception of natural order and the rejection of state authority represents the earliest vision of a truly free society, one where individuals are not subordinated to any form of coercive power." ~ Prof. Max Nettlau

This idea was later rediscovered and expanded by anarchist thinkers like Mikhail Bakunin, Peter Kropotkin, and Emma Goldman, who all sought to create a society based on the principles Zenon first articulated in the ancient world.

The core principles of Zenon’s anarchist philosophy - mutual aid, cooperation, and equality - found a natural extension in the work of Peter Kropotkin. Kropotkin’s theory of mutual aid argued that cooperation, not competition, was the driving force of evolution, both in nature and human society. This emphasis on solidarity and voluntary cooperation aligns closely with Zenon’s belief in a society where individuals work together for the common good, rather than being dominated by the state or any other form of authority.

In Kropotkin’s words:

"Zenon’s anarchist philosophy is the foundation of all that we now consider essential to anarchism: the repudiation of the state, the elimination of coercion, and the exaltation of human liberty based on natural law."

Thus, Zenon’s vision of a stateless, egalitarian society was a precursor to Kropotkin’s vision of anarchist communism - a society based on voluntary cooperation, equality, and mutual aid.

Zenon’s Role in the History of Anarchism

Zenon of Kition’s philosophy stands as the first systematic theory of anarchism in history, offering a vision of a stateless, egalitarian society governed by natural order and the moral autonomy of individuals. His critique of state authority, private property, and coercive institutions laid the philosophical foundation for later anarchist thinkers, including Peter Kropotkin, Max Nettlau, and others.

Zenon’s work represents an important continuity in the development of anarchism, connecting the ancient world to the modern anarchist movement. His ideas on freedom, equality, and mutual aid continue to resonate with contemporary anarchist theory, making Zenon one of the most important precursors of modern anarchism.

Literature:

Core Historical & Philosophical Works on Zenon, Stoicism, and Ancient Anarchism

Prof. Georg Adler
Geschichte des antiken Sozialismus und Kommunismus (History of Ancient Socialism and Communism), 1899
— Fundamental for understanding the connection between ancient Stoicism and anarchism; detailed analysis of Zenon’s social ideals.

Prof. Max Nettlau
Geschichte der Anarchie (History of Anarchy), Vol. 1, early 20th century
— A foundational work tracing libertarian and anarchist ideas from antiquity to modern times, emphasizing Zenon’s role.

Diogenes Laertius
The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius (especially the sections on the Cynics and Stoics)
— Key source for biographies and fragments of Diogenes, Zenon, and other early anarchist thinkers.

Anarchism and Libertarian Socialism: Theoretical Foundations
Peter Kropotkin
Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902)
— Explores cooperation in nature and society.

Peter Kropotkin
Anarchism: Its Philosophy and Ideal (1887)
— Overview of anarchist philosophy, references to ancient roots including Zenon and Stoic principles, connects ancient anarchistic ideas with modern libertarian socialism.

Peter Kroptkin
Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910; Anarchism

Stoicism and Natural Law:

A. A. Long
Stoic Studies (1996)
— Scholarly exploration of Stoic ethics and political philosophy, including Zenon’s contributions.

Martha C. Nussbaum
The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics (1994)
— Analyzes Stoic ethics and natural law, useful for understanding the philosophical foundations of Zenon’s ideas.

Natural Law, Social Philosophy & Legal Theory

Dr. Paul Barth
Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Soziologie, first published in 1897 — contains sections on Stoicism’s influence on natural law and the evolution of European thought. This text is foundational for understanding the philosophical lineage leading to modern anarchist thought.

Zenon of Kition
Fragments and passages preserved in:

The Stoic Philosophy of Seneca: Essays and Letters (includes Stoic principles derived from Zenon); written by Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Author), Moses Hadas (editor)

Diogenes Laertius, The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius

Online and Secondary Resources:

Encyclopaedia Britannica 1910 edition entries on:

Zenon of Kition
Anarchism (written by Peter Kropotkin, 1910)
Stoicism

Prof. Max Nettlau’s collected essays and papers, often available in anarchist historical archives and university libraries.